Qualitative Analysis Qualitative method is an analytical method which is used to determine the number of elements or molecules produced during a chemical reaction. Organic compound comprises of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur and halogens. Various methods to determine the per cent composition of element in the organic compound are explained below. Detection of Carbon and … Read more

Some Basic Principles and Technique Organic Chemistry is a branch of chemistry which deals with the study of structures, properties and reactions of organic compounds. Here carbon containing chemical compound is known as organic compounds. Study of its structure helps determine its chemical composition and formula. This chapter talks about some basic concepts, structure and … Read more

Equilibrium: Physical and Chemical processes in equilibrium A physical equilibrium is a state where the physical properties of the system remain constant with time. These properties include pressure, temperature, volume etc. For example, when water is heated, it starts vaporizing at its boiling point. At this stage, the temperature does not change until the whole … Read more

Chemical Thermodynamics: Third law of thermodynamics This law is a statistical law of nature. It is associated with entropy and the impossibility of reaching absolute zero of temperature. For substances undergoing an isothermal process, the entropy change goes to zero as T (in K) goes to zero as they reach equilibrium. The law is applicable … Read more

Chemical Thermodynamics: Thermodynamic equilibrium A clear difference between thermodynamics and kinetics is that thermodynamics tells us whether the reaction will occur or not in order to predict the final state. And, kinetics tells us how fast the reaction will occur and reach equilibrium. A system in the state of minimum energy is at equilibrium. This … Read more

Chemical Thermodynamics: Gibb’s energy change The speed at which a reaction takes place is associated with its kinetics, however, the spontaneity of a reaction is an indication towards whether it is thermodynamically favored or not. A spontaneous process is those that occur under a specific set of conditions without any outside intervention. While non-spontaneous processes … Read more

Chemical Thermodynamics: Entropy- a state function Entropy is a thermodynamic property which is a measure of the disorder of a system. This means that more disorganized a system is, the higher its entropy.The entropy of a substance increases with temperature. Accordingly, an increase in molecular complexity results in an increase in S.Entropies of ionic solids … Read more

Chemical Thermodynamics: Second law of thermodynamics The second law of thermodynamics is derived from three statements. Carnot’s Theorem states that “the efficiency of an engine working irreversibly is always less than a reversible engine operating between the same two reservoirs while the efficiency of two reversible engines is the same ”.Carnot’s engine is the highest … Read more

  Many important relationships describe the characteristics of the gas samples that have been entirely empirically derived i.e, rather than attempting to define the hypothetical reason in which these relationships might exist, it means they are only based on observations. So, these are the empirical gas laws. There are numerous methods to derive the Empirical … Read more

  Molecular shape In molecular shape (the shape of a single molecule), it is important to determine how there are the interaction and reaction process of molecules with each other or interaction and reaction amongst themselves. Also, molecular shape affects the melting and boiling point of the molecules. Let suppose, if all the molecules were … Read more