Concept of shells and subshells Shells An electronic shell or a principal energy level is an orbit followed by electrons around an atom’s nucleus. The closest shell to the nucleus is called the K shell (also called 1 shell), followed by L shell , M shell, and so on farther and farther from the nucleus. … Read more

Have you smelled freshly-baked bread? Well, most of the people who have who had an aroma of this baking, loved it, and people also enjoy its taste. It’s fluffy because of the yeast on sugar, and also it’s light. The yeast has the ability to convert sugar into carbon dioxide, which causes the dough to … Read more

  Propane tanks are extensively used with grills of barbecue. But you’ll not love that in the middle of your grilling, you run out of gas. You can purchase the gauge which measures the pressure in the tank to notice how much is left. The gauge measures the pressure and will record a high pressure … Read more

Intermolecular forces prevail along intermolecular interactions being forces of repulsion or attraction among neighboring particles that may be ions, molecules or atoms. These forces are comparatively weaker than the covalent and iconic bonds that are formed among atoms in a molecule. For instance, the covalent bonds that may prevail within Hydrogen Chloride (HCl) are supposed … Read more

Chemical Thermodynamics: Extensive properties A property of the system is any characteristic specific to it. Physical properties are often referred to as observables. They are not modal properties. Properties can either be basic or derived. Basic property is directly measured while derive property is indirectly calculated from the basic ones. Properties can also be explained … Read more

Chemical Thermodynamics: Energy Every system or sample of matter has energy stored in it. In a chemical reaction, the new bonds formed never have the same amount of potential energy as the bonds that were broken. Therefore, all chemical reactions involve a change in energy. Energy is either given off or taken on by the … Read more

Chemical Thermodynamics: Heat Heat and the thermodynamics form the basics which helped process designers and engineers to optimize their processes and harness the energy associated with chemical reactions economically. When researchers especially researched on thermodynamics, they were only researching heat and thermal energy. Heat is able to do anything: I can flow from one area … Read more

Chemical Thermodynamics: Work Energy $(\Delta U)$ can cross the boundary of a system in two forms -> Work (W) and Heat (q). Both work and heat refer to processes by which energy is transferred to or from a substance. $\Delta U=W+q$ Work done by a system is defined as the quantity of energy exchanged between … Read more

Chemical Thermodynamics: Surroundings A system is a part of the universe in which we make observations while all the remaining part of the universe is called surrounding. We can consider the ‘Surrounding’ as the immediate neighborhood of the system (the part of the universe at large, with which the system ‘effectively’ interacts). In this process … Read more

Chemical Thermodynamics – Types of systems A system is referred to as a part of the universe under observation while is the remaining universe constitutes the surroundings with which the system can interact. System and surroundings together make the universe The system can be classified according to the movement of energy and matter in and … Read more